Economic Analysis of Forest Management for Timber Production and Agricultural Production in Hillside Watershed Areas of Madagascar: A Case Study of the Itasy Region
Article Sidebar
Issue
Vol. 30 No. 1 (2024)
Accepted
5 January 2024
Published
1 April 2024
Keywords:
-
discounted cash flow, soil erosion, watershed management, perennial crops, annual crops
Abstract
In hillside watersheds, forests play a crucial role in protecting against soil erosion. Not only does forest vegetation cover serve as a biological measure to prevent soil erosion, it also generates income through sustainable management practices. However, there is a scarcity of research that evaluates and compares the profitability of perennial woody crops with that of other agricultural crops by integrating biological aspects within an economic analytical framework in Central Madagascar. In this study, we address this gap by combining a biological growth model that captures complex forest dynamics with economic management data to utilize the discounted cash flow method. We applied this approach to evaluate and compare the profitability of forest management and agricultural crop production in the hillside watershed areas of Central Madagascar, which have experienced severe human-induced soil erosion. Although our results showed that timber production is a profitable option, other agricultural crops generate much higher profits, indicating that financial subsidies alone may not be enough to shift land use toward perennial woody crops. In addition, growing fruit trees such as oranges and mangoes appears to be a much more financially attractive option for local farmers than annual agricultural crop production.
References
Agassi, M., Bloem, D., & Ben‐Hur, M. (1994). Effect of drop energy and soil and water chemistry on infiltration and erosion. Water Resources Research, 30(4), 1187–1193. https://doi.org/10.1029/93WR02880
Aguiar, J. (1998). Evanescent diversity: The palms of Madagascar. BioScience, 48(7), 499–503. https://doi.org/10.2307/1313310
Andriamialison, L., & Rambeloarisoa, G. (1998). Analyse transversale sur le Pinus kesiya. Centre Fafiala.
Aneseyee, A. B., Elias, E., Soromessa, T., & Feyisa, G. L. (2020). Land use/land cover change effect on soil erosion and sediment delivery in the Winike watershed, Omo Gibe Basin, Ethiopia. Science of the Total Environment, 728, 138776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138776
Ayoubi, S., Mohammadi, A., Abdi, M. R., Abbaszadeh Afshar, F., Wang, L., & Zeraatpisheh, M. (2022). Assessment of soil redistribution following land rehabilitation with an apple orchard in hilly regions of Central Iran. Agronomy, 12(2), 451. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020451
Bakoariniaina, L. N., Kusky, T., & Raharimahefa T. (2006). Disappearing Lake Alaotra: Monitoring catastrophic erosion, waterway silting, and land degradation hazards in Madagascar using Landsat imagery. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 44(2), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.013
Barbier, E. B. (1997). The economic determinants of land degradation in developing countries. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Biological Sciences, 352(1356), 891–899. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1997.0068
Batumalai, P., Mohd Nazer, N. S., Simon, N., Sulaiman, N., Umor, M. R., & Ghazali, M. A. (2023). Soil detachment rate of a rainfall-induced landslide soil. Water, 15(12), 2149.
Brauman, K. A., Daily, G., C., Duarte, K. T., & Mooney, H. A. (2007). The nature and value of ecosystem services: An overview highlighting hydrologic services. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 32(1), 67–98. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.031306.102758
Cox, R., Bierman, P., Jungers, M. C., & Rakotondrazafy, A. F. M. (2009). Erosion rates and sediment sources in Madagascar inferred from 10Be analysis of lavaka, slope, and river sediment. The Journal of Geology, 117, 363–376. https://doi.org/10.1086/598945
Cubbage, F., Rubilar, R., Mac Donagh, P., Kanieski Da Silva, B., Bussoni, A., Morales, V., Balmelli, G., Hoeflich, V. A., Lord, R., Hernández, C., Zhang, P., Thu, H. T. T., Yao, R., Hall, P., Korhonen, J., Díaz-Balteiro, L., Rodríguez-Soalleiro, R., Davis, R., Chudy, R., De La Torre, R., Lopera, G., Phimmavong, S., Garzón, S., & Cubas-Baez, A. (2022). Comparative global timber investment costs, returns, and applications, 2020. Journal of Forest Business Research, 1(1), 90–121. Retrieved from https://www.forest-journal.com/index.php/JFBR/article/view/global-timberland-investment-returns.
Duley, F. L., & Hays, O. E. (1932). The effect of the degree of slope on runoff and soil erosion. Journal of Agricultural Research, 45(6), 349–360.
DERAD (2005). Analysis of watershed degradation and proposal of alternatives to limit erosion in the Itasy Lake region. Eastern and Southern Africa Partnership Programme (ESAPP).
Ericsson, K., Rosenqvist, H., Ganko, E., Pisarek, M., & Nilsson, L. (2006). An agro-economic analysis of willow cultivation in Poland. Biomass and Bioenergy, 30(1), 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.09.002
[FAO] Food and Agriculture Oganization. (2016). State of the world’s forests 2016. Forests and agriculture: Land-use challenges and opportunities. Rome.
Gade, D. W. (1996). Deforestation and its effects in highland Madagascar. Mountain Research and Development, 16(2), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.2307/3674005
Gondo, P. C. (2012). A review of forest financing in Africa. Zimbabwe: Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE).
Grieser, R. (1994). Environmental education and communication (EE&C). Assessment for Madagascar. GreenCOM report for U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Academy for Educational Development.
Helfert, M. R., & Wood, C. A. (1986). Shuttle photos show Madagascar erosion. Geotimes, 31, 4–5.
Hieu, P. S. (2004). The changing administration and role of forestry in the economy of Vietnam. Small-Scale Forest Economics, Management and Policy, 3, 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-004-0006-1
Hoyer, G. E. (1985). Tree form quotients as variables in volume estimation. USDA Forest Service. Research Paper PNW-345.
[IMF] International Monetary Fund. (2021). Republic of Madagascar. IMF Country Report No. 21/75. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund.
Inbar, A., Lado, M., Sternberg, M., Tenau, H., & Ben-Hur, M. (2014). Forest fire effects on soil chemical and physicochemical properties, infiltration, runoff, and erosion in a semiarid Mediterranean region. Geoderma, 221–222, 131138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.01.015
Julien, P., & Shah, S. (2005). Sedimentation initiatives in developing countries. Draft report presented to UN Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)–International Sedimentation Initiative. Fort Collins, Colorado State University.
Klein, J. (2002). Deforestation in the Madagascar highlands-Established truth’ and scientific uncertainty. GeoJournal, 56(3), 191–199. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025187422687
Konoshima, M., Tonda, T., Kamo, K. I., & Razafindrabe, B. H. N. (2021). Assessing the immediate impact of surrounding land uses on the extents of freshwater body over time in Madagascar-A demonstrative caase study of Itasy Lake. FORMATH, 20, 20.003. https://doi.org/10.15684/formath.20.003
Kuboyama, H., Nagata, S., Tachibana, S., Yasumura, N., & Yamamoto, N. (2000). Investigation of the cost-share programs in the U. S. Focusing on the development of softwood plantations in NIPF. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society, 82(2), 188–195. https://doi.org/10.11519/jjfs1953.82.2_188
Lal, R. (1988). Soil degradation and the future of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 43, 444–451.
Lawson, G. J., Dupraz, C., Herzog, F., Moreno, G., Pisanelli, A., & Thomas, T. H. (2002). Incentives for tree planting on farms in the European Union: Is agroforestry supported?. Retrieved from http://www.medpartnership.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/8-SAFE-first-year-report-WP9-annex1.pdf
Liu, Y., Hou, X., Qiao, J., Zhang, W., Fang, M., & Lin, M. (2023). Evaluation of soil erosion rates in the hilly-gully region of the Loess Plateau in China in the past 60 years using global fallout plutonium. Catena, 220, 106666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106666
Madagascar, World Bank, USAID, Cooperation Suisse, UNESCO, UNDP, & World Wildlife Fund. (1988). Madagascar-Environmental action plan (1st vol.). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/970001468773368889/Madagascar-Environmental-action-plan
Montanaro, G., Xiloyannis, C., Nuzzo, V., & Dichio, B. (2017). Orchard management, soil organic carbon and ecosystem services in Mediterranean fruit tree crops, Scientia Horticulturae, 217, 92101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.01.012
Mottet, G. (1988). Quelques exemples d’erosion anthropique dans une montagne tropicale: l’Ankaratra (Madagascar). In L’homme et la montagne tropicale (pp. 143–146). Bordeaux, Sepanrit.
Ng'andwe, P., Chungu, D., Yambayamba, A. M., & Chilambwe, A. (2019). Data on tree height and diameter for Pinus kesiya in Zambia. Data in Brief, 25, 104199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2019.104199
Nie, Y., Avraamidou, S., Xiao, X., Pistikopoulos, E. N., Li, J., Zeng, Y., & Zhu, M. (2019). A food-energy-water nexus approach for land use optimization. Science of the Total Environment, 659, 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.242
Nyunaï, N. (2008). Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon. In D. Louppe, A. A. Oteng-Amoako, & M. Brink (Eds.), PROTA (Plant resources of tropical Africa/Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale). Wageningen, Netherlands.
Pham Q.T. (2010). Equation to estimate volume, soil level and yield for Pinus kesiya Royle Ex.Gordon in Ha Giang (thesis). Hanoi: Vietnam National Forestry University.
Pradhan, B., Chaudhari, A., Adinarayana, J., & Buchroithner, M. F. (2012). Soil erosion assessment and its correlation with landslide events using remote sensing data and GIS: A case study at Penang Island, Malaysia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184(2), 715–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-1996-8
Rakotoson, R. (2014). A comparative analysis of technical effectiveness and financial profits of industrial and traditional plantations (thesis). Antananarivo: University of Antananarivo.
Ralison, O. H., Borges, A. V., Dehairs, F., Middelburg, J.J., & Bouillon, S. (2008). Carbon biogeochemistry of the Betsiboka estuary (northwestern Madagascar). Organic Geochemistry, 39,1649–1658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2008.01.010
Randrianarijaona, P. (1983). The erosion of Madagascar. Ambio, 12, 308–311.
Samkelisiwe, N. H-G., & Mpandeli, N. S. (2020). The role of small-scale farmers in ensuring food security in Africa. In B. Mahmoud (Ed.), Food security in Africa. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91694
Saramäki, J. (1992). A growth and yield prediction model of Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) in Zambia. Acta Froestalia Fennica, 230, 7676. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7676
Sokouti, R., & Nikkami, D. (2017). Optimizing land use pattern to reduce soil erosion. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science, 6(1), 7583.
Styger, E., Rakotondramasy, H. M., Pfeffer, M. J., Fernandes, E. C., & Bates, D. M. (2007). Influence of slash-and-burn farming practices on fallow succession and land degradation in the rainforest region of Madagascar. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 119(3–4), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.07.012
Tesfaye, A., Brouwer, R., Van der Zaag, P., & Negatu, W. (2016). Assessing the costs and benefits of improved land management practices in three watershed areas in Ethiopia. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 4(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2016.01.003
Testa, R., Tudisca, S., Schifani, G., Di Trapani, A. M., & Migliore, G. (2018). Tropical fruits as an opportunity for sustainable development in rural areas: The case of mango in small-sized Sicilian farms. Sustainability, 10(5), 1436. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051436
Troeh, F., Hobbs, J., & Donahue, R. (1999). Soil and water conservation: Productivity and environment protection. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Tsanis, I. K., Seiradakis, K. D., Sarchani, S., Panagea, I. S., Alexakis, D. D., & Koutroulis, A. G. (2021). The impact of soil-improving cropping practices on erosion rates: A stakeholder-oriented field experiment assessment. Land, 10(9), 964. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10090964
[USAID] United States Agency for International Development. (1998). USAID congressional presentation FY 1998. Washington, DC: USAID.
Wells, N. A. (1991). Patterns of development of lavaka, Madagascar’s unusual gullies. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 16, 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290160302
Winans, K. S., Tardif, A. S., Lteif, A. E., & Whalen, J. K. (2015). Carbon sequestration potential and cost-benefit analysis of hybrid poplar, grain corn and hay cultivation in southern Quebec, Canada. Agroforestry Systems, 89(3), 421–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-014-9776-4
World Bank. (2013). Madagascar country environmental analysis (CEA): Taking stock and moving forward. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10986/33934
Xu, Y., Luo, D., & Peng, J. (2011). Land use change and soil erosion in the Maotiao River watershed of Guizhou Province. Journal of Geographical sciences, 21, 1138–1152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-011-0906-x
Yang, D., Kanae, S., Oki, T., Koike, T., & Musiake, K. (2003). Global potential soil erosion with reference to land use and climate changes. Hydrological Processes, 17(14), 2913–2928. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1441
Yoshimoto, A., Asante, P., & Konoshima, M. (2016). Stand-level forest management planning approaches. Current Forestry Reports, 2(3), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-016-0041-0
Zhang, W., & Huang, B. (2015). Soil erosion evaluation in a rapidly urbanizing city (Shenzhen, China) and implementation of spatial land-use optimization. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 4475–4490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3454-y
Zhang, Z., Sheng, L., Yang, J., Chen, X. A., Kong, L., & Wagan, B. (2015). Effects of land use and slope gradient on soil erosion in a red soil hilly watershed of southern China. Sustainability, 7(10), 14309–14325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su71014309
Zorn, T. (1999). A forest political study on protection forests of Germany, Austria and Japan. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, 69(2), 47–128.
Aguiar, J. (1998). Evanescent diversity: The palms of Madagascar. BioScience, 48(7), 499–503. https://doi.org/10.2307/1313310
Andriamialison, L., & Rambeloarisoa, G. (1998). Analyse transversale sur le Pinus kesiya. Centre Fafiala.
Aneseyee, A. B., Elias, E., Soromessa, T., & Feyisa, G. L. (2020). Land use/land cover change effect on soil erosion and sediment delivery in the Winike watershed, Omo Gibe Basin, Ethiopia. Science of the Total Environment, 728, 138776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138776
Ayoubi, S., Mohammadi, A., Abdi, M. R., Abbaszadeh Afshar, F., Wang, L., & Zeraatpisheh, M. (2022). Assessment of soil redistribution following land rehabilitation with an apple orchard in hilly regions of Central Iran. Agronomy, 12(2), 451. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12020451
Bakoariniaina, L. N., Kusky, T., & Raharimahefa T. (2006). Disappearing Lake Alaotra: Monitoring catastrophic erosion, waterway silting, and land degradation hazards in Madagascar using Landsat imagery. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 44(2), 241–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.013
Barbier, E. B. (1997). The economic determinants of land degradation in developing countries. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Biological Sciences, 352(1356), 891–899. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1997.0068
Batumalai, P., Mohd Nazer, N. S., Simon, N., Sulaiman, N., Umor, M. R., & Ghazali, M. A. (2023). Soil detachment rate of a rainfall-induced landslide soil. Water, 15(12), 2149.
Brauman, K. A., Daily, G., C., Duarte, K. T., & Mooney, H. A. (2007). The nature and value of ecosystem services: An overview highlighting hydrologic services. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 32(1), 67–98. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.031306.102758
Cox, R., Bierman, P., Jungers, M. C., & Rakotondrazafy, A. F. M. (2009). Erosion rates and sediment sources in Madagascar inferred from 10Be analysis of lavaka, slope, and river sediment. The Journal of Geology, 117, 363–376. https://doi.org/10.1086/598945
Cubbage, F., Rubilar, R., Mac Donagh, P., Kanieski Da Silva, B., Bussoni, A., Morales, V., Balmelli, G., Hoeflich, V. A., Lord, R., Hernández, C., Zhang, P., Thu, H. T. T., Yao, R., Hall, P., Korhonen, J., Díaz-Balteiro, L., Rodríguez-Soalleiro, R., Davis, R., Chudy, R., De La Torre, R., Lopera, G., Phimmavong, S., Garzón, S., & Cubas-Baez, A. (2022). Comparative global timber investment costs, returns, and applications, 2020. Journal of Forest Business Research, 1(1), 90–121. Retrieved from https://www.forest-journal.com/index.php/JFBR/article/view/global-timberland-investment-returns.
Duley, F. L., & Hays, O. E. (1932). The effect of the degree of slope on runoff and soil erosion. Journal of Agricultural Research, 45(6), 349–360.
DERAD (2005). Analysis of watershed degradation and proposal of alternatives to limit erosion in the Itasy Lake region. Eastern and Southern Africa Partnership Programme (ESAPP).
Ericsson, K., Rosenqvist, H., Ganko, E., Pisarek, M., & Nilsson, L. (2006). An agro-economic analysis of willow cultivation in Poland. Biomass and Bioenergy, 30(1), 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.09.002
[FAO] Food and Agriculture Oganization. (2016). State of the world’s forests 2016. Forests and agriculture: Land-use challenges and opportunities. Rome.
Gade, D. W. (1996). Deforestation and its effects in highland Madagascar. Mountain Research and Development, 16(2), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.2307/3674005
Gondo, P. C. (2012). A review of forest financing in Africa. Zimbabwe: Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE).
Grieser, R. (1994). Environmental education and communication (EE&C). Assessment for Madagascar. GreenCOM report for U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Academy for Educational Development.
Helfert, M. R., & Wood, C. A. (1986). Shuttle photos show Madagascar erosion. Geotimes, 31, 4–5.
Hieu, P. S. (2004). The changing administration and role of forestry in the economy of Vietnam. Small-Scale Forest Economics, Management and Policy, 3, 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-004-0006-1
Hoyer, G. E. (1985). Tree form quotients as variables in volume estimation. USDA Forest Service. Research Paper PNW-345.
[IMF] International Monetary Fund. (2021). Republic of Madagascar. IMF Country Report No. 21/75. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund.
Inbar, A., Lado, M., Sternberg, M., Tenau, H., & Ben-Hur, M. (2014). Forest fire effects on soil chemical and physicochemical properties, infiltration, runoff, and erosion in a semiarid Mediterranean region. Geoderma, 221–222, 131138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2014.01.015
Julien, P., & Shah, S. (2005). Sedimentation initiatives in developing countries. Draft report presented to UN Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)–International Sedimentation Initiative. Fort Collins, Colorado State University.
Klein, J. (2002). Deforestation in the Madagascar highlands-Established truth’ and scientific uncertainty. GeoJournal, 56(3), 191–199. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025187422687
Konoshima, M., Tonda, T., Kamo, K. I., & Razafindrabe, B. H. N. (2021). Assessing the immediate impact of surrounding land uses on the extents of freshwater body over time in Madagascar-A demonstrative caase study of Itasy Lake. FORMATH, 20, 20.003. https://doi.org/10.15684/formath.20.003
Kuboyama, H., Nagata, S., Tachibana, S., Yasumura, N., & Yamamoto, N. (2000). Investigation of the cost-share programs in the U. S. Focusing on the development of softwood plantations in NIPF. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society, 82(2), 188–195. https://doi.org/10.11519/jjfs1953.82.2_188
Lal, R. (1988). Soil degradation and the future of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 43, 444–451.
Lawson, G. J., Dupraz, C., Herzog, F., Moreno, G., Pisanelli, A., & Thomas, T. H. (2002). Incentives for tree planting on farms in the European Union: Is agroforestry supported?. Retrieved from http://www.medpartnership.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/8-SAFE-first-year-report-WP9-annex1.pdf
Liu, Y., Hou, X., Qiao, J., Zhang, W., Fang, M., & Lin, M. (2023). Evaluation of soil erosion rates in the hilly-gully region of the Loess Plateau in China in the past 60 years using global fallout plutonium. Catena, 220, 106666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106666
Madagascar, World Bank, USAID, Cooperation Suisse, UNESCO, UNDP, & World Wildlife Fund. (1988). Madagascar-Environmental action plan (1st vol.). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/970001468773368889/Madagascar-Environmental-action-plan
Montanaro, G., Xiloyannis, C., Nuzzo, V., & Dichio, B. (2017). Orchard management, soil organic carbon and ecosystem services in Mediterranean fruit tree crops, Scientia Horticulturae, 217, 92101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.01.012
Mottet, G. (1988). Quelques exemples d’erosion anthropique dans une montagne tropicale: l’Ankaratra (Madagascar). In L’homme et la montagne tropicale (pp. 143–146). Bordeaux, Sepanrit.
Ng'andwe, P., Chungu, D., Yambayamba, A. M., & Chilambwe, A. (2019). Data on tree height and diameter for Pinus kesiya in Zambia. Data in Brief, 25, 104199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2019.104199
Nie, Y., Avraamidou, S., Xiao, X., Pistikopoulos, E. N., Li, J., Zeng, Y., & Zhu, M. (2019). A food-energy-water nexus approach for land use optimization. Science of the Total Environment, 659, 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.242
Nyunaï, N. (2008). Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon. In D. Louppe, A. A. Oteng-Amoako, & M. Brink (Eds.), PROTA (Plant resources of tropical Africa/Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale). Wageningen, Netherlands.
Pham Q.T. (2010). Equation to estimate volume, soil level and yield for Pinus kesiya Royle Ex.Gordon in Ha Giang (thesis). Hanoi: Vietnam National Forestry University.
Pradhan, B., Chaudhari, A., Adinarayana, J., & Buchroithner, M. F. (2012). Soil erosion assessment and its correlation with landslide events using remote sensing data and GIS: A case study at Penang Island, Malaysia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184(2), 715–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-1996-8
Rakotoson, R. (2014). A comparative analysis of technical effectiveness and financial profits of industrial and traditional plantations (thesis). Antananarivo: University of Antananarivo.
Ralison, O. H., Borges, A. V., Dehairs, F., Middelburg, J.J., & Bouillon, S. (2008). Carbon biogeochemistry of the Betsiboka estuary (northwestern Madagascar). Organic Geochemistry, 39,1649–1658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2008.01.010
Randrianarijaona, P. (1983). The erosion of Madagascar. Ambio, 12, 308–311.
Samkelisiwe, N. H-G., & Mpandeli, N. S. (2020). The role of small-scale farmers in ensuring food security in Africa. In B. Mahmoud (Ed.), Food security in Africa. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91694
Saramäki, J. (1992). A growth and yield prediction model of Pinus kesiya (Royle ex Gordon) in Zambia. Acta Froestalia Fennica, 230, 7676. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7676
Sokouti, R., & Nikkami, D. (2017). Optimizing land use pattern to reduce soil erosion. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science, 6(1), 7583.
Styger, E., Rakotondramasy, H. M., Pfeffer, M. J., Fernandes, E. C., & Bates, D. M. (2007). Influence of slash-and-burn farming practices on fallow succession and land degradation in the rainforest region of Madagascar. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 119(3–4), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.07.012
Tesfaye, A., Brouwer, R., Van der Zaag, P., & Negatu, W. (2016). Assessing the costs and benefits of improved land management practices in three watershed areas in Ethiopia. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 4(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2016.01.003
Testa, R., Tudisca, S., Schifani, G., Di Trapani, A. M., & Migliore, G. (2018). Tropical fruits as an opportunity for sustainable development in rural areas: The case of mango in small-sized Sicilian farms. Sustainability, 10(5), 1436. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051436
Troeh, F., Hobbs, J., & Donahue, R. (1999). Soil and water conservation: Productivity and environment protection. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Tsanis, I. K., Seiradakis, K. D., Sarchani, S., Panagea, I. S., Alexakis, D. D., & Koutroulis, A. G. (2021). The impact of soil-improving cropping practices on erosion rates: A stakeholder-oriented field experiment assessment. Land, 10(9), 964. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10090964
[USAID] United States Agency for International Development. (1998). USAID congressional presentation FY 1998. Washington, DC: USAID.
Wells, N. A. (1991). Patterns of development of lavaka, Madagascar’s unusual gullies. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 16, 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3290160302
Winans, K. S., Tardif, A. S., Lteif, A. E., & Whalen, J. K. (2015). Carbon sequestration potential and cost-benefit analysis of hybrid poplar, grain corn and hay cultivation in southern Quebec, Canada. Agroforestry Systems, 89(3), 421–433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-014-9776-4
World Bank. (2013). Madagascar country environmental analysis (CEA): Taking stock and moving forward. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10986/33934
Xu, Y., Luo, D., & Peng, J. (2011). Land use change and soil erosion in the Maotiao River watershed of Guizhou Province. Journal of Geographical sciences, 21, 1138–1152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-011-0906-x
Yang, D., Kanae, S., Oki, T., Koike, T., & Musiake, K. (2003). Global potential soil erosion with reference to land use and climate changes. Hydrological Processes, 17(14), 2913–2928. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.1441
Yoshimoto, A., Asante, P., & Konoshima, M. (2016). Stand-level forest management planning approaches. Current Forestry Reports, 2(3), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-016-0041-0
Zhang, W., & Huang, B. (2015). Soil erosion evaluation in a rapidly urbanizing city (Shenzhen, China) and implementation of spatial land-use optimization. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22, 4475–4490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3454-y
Zhang, Z., Sheng, L., Yang, J., Chen, X. A., Kong, L., & Wagan, B. (2015). Effects of land use and slope gradient on soil erosion in a red soil hilly watershed of southern China. Sustainability, 7(10), 14309–14325. https://doi.org/10.3390/su71014309
Zorn, T. (1999). A forest political study on protection forests of Germany, Austria and Japan. Journal of the Faculty of Agriculture, 69(2), 47–128.
Authors
KonoshimaM., & RazafindrabeB. H. N. (2024). Economic Analysis of Forest Management for Timber Production and Agricultural Production in Hillside Watershed Areas of Madagascar: A Case Study of the Itasy Region. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 30(1), 84. https://doi.org/10.7226/jtfm.30.1.84
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika is an open access journal which means that all contents is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative (BOAI) definition of open access.Article Details
